Chapter 8 transport and communication

-Transportation is the moving of people and goods from one place to another.
-communication is the circulation of informatino and ideas among people.

developement of transport

7000 BCE-simple rafts and canoes
4000BCE-animals for domesticated transport
3500 BCE- wheel developed in mesopotamia
3000 BCE-sailing ship developed by Egyptians ...
1769-Steam powered vehicle developed in France
1763- First hot air balloon launched into the sky in France
1807- First steamship sailed in New York
1825- Railway became the most popular way of transport--fastest
1869- Airships
1885- internal combustion engines (current motor vehicals)
1903- first airplane took it's flight! after this, air transport developed rapidly

Chpt 10 Managing the changing environment

• When the impact caused by human activity on the environment covers a large area of such as a continent or ocean, we say it is at a regional scale
• e.g. oil spills and acid rains(caused by releasing sulphur dioxide into the air, affects other countries in the area too)
• When the impact affects the whole world, it is on a GLOBAL SCALE
• e.g global warming and ozone depletion
• Global warming is caused by increase in air pollutants that are keeping excess heat on the Earth's atmosphere
• Ozone depletion is caused by Chlorofluorocarbons released into the air

Protecting and conserving the environment

Individual Actions

• 3R principal- Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
• put recyclable materials into recycling binis
• use fewer plastic bags, instead use cloth bags
• use fewer disposable utensils when we eat

National level

• Direct actions like setting up environmental policies and adopting the polluter pays principles
• Indirect actions like education and campaigns through posters, pamphlets, TV programmes and others

Regional level

• co-operate with other neighbouring countries in the region to counter pollution and conserve the environment
• e.g ASEAN countries signed the Agreement on Transboundary haze Pollution in 2002 to counter the problem of haze in southeast asia

International level

• cooperation achieved through conventions and agreements on environmental issues
• e.g. Montreal Protocol 1987 which adresses ozone depletion
• Kyoto Protocol 1997 which addresses global warming
• it is a pact to reduce greenhouse gasses that are emmitted by countries to a fixed amount by year 2012
• under it, National Environmental Agency of Singapore can participate in the clean developement mechanism projects
• ministry of environment and water resources is leading the developement of a holistic climate change strategy, engaging both public and private sectors in climate change actions

Chapter 11-Understanding land supply

Land as a scare resource

• land makes up about 30 % of the Earth surface (70% water!)
• out of 30%, 10% is habitable, 5% too cold, 5% too mountainous, 10% too dry
• more than 6 billion are already living on it and the world's poplation is expected to hit 8 billion by 2025!

competition for different land uses

• land scarcity is the shortage of land available for economic activities
• need land for:
• banks and offices
• industries which create jobs for people and bring in more money
• grow crops for food
• housing
• parks and other recreation
• improve transport systems

Reasons for rising demand of land

Increase in population

• world population has risen from 3 billion people in 1960 to 6.4 billion in 2004
• more land is needed for housing and growing crops
• e.g Singapore was faced with population boom in 1960s
• public housing programme, more tall buildings were built
• in developing countries, there is short of farmland, e.g in India, where over 55% lived in rural areas, causing great pressures on farmlands

Increased Urbanisation

• increase in the % of urban centres and % of people living in urban centres
• most countries are focusing on economic developement to gain a competitive edge in the world market
• result-formation of megapolises (a very large metropolitan areas)
• need more land to build residential, industrial and commercial areas
• need to build roads, railways and container wharves
• with increasing urbanisation, competition of land by other land uses becomes keener and hence less land becomes available for farming

Chapter 12-Responses to the rising demand of land

Increasing price of land

• land prices change over time and from place to place
• governed by the law of supply and demand
• high demand, high price, high supply, low price
• land prices are higher in large urban areas than rural areas because of the high demand of land in urban areas and relatively abundant land supply in rural areas
• PRICE MECHANISM controls the allocation of land uses, and refers to the process by which changes in price guides and shape changes in the value and types of goods and services that are produced
• land prices decreases as they move away from the city centre, and activities able to pay the highest rental are often found in teh city centre, activities which need a bigger foor area would be likely located at the outskirts of the city (eg farming)
• when many businesses compete for a location, the price of land will increase
• land is very valuable in cities like Singapore as competition among different land uses is intense
• PRICE is an effective tool to allocate teh scare land in a competitive situation
• as a result of high land value in the city, activities that generate high income is usually in the city centre
• The opportunity cost is the cost of a decision in terms of the value of the next best alternative
• opportunity cost of retaining open spaces and old buildings in the city is more available land for commercial purposes such as banking and hotel businesses
• however, open spaces and historically significant old buildings provide recreatinon aesthetic beauty and a sense of history (e.g Central Park in New York)

Maximising land use

• land use plannign is a suitable response to demand for land as it can settle conflicts about land use so as to maximise existing land use

Urban land use

• mixed land use-different activities are carried out in the city centre, forming a mixed land use
• high density buildings-buildings are built closely to each other to allow more residential flats to house a growing population and offers more offices to accomodate expanding economic activities
• skyscrapers are another solution to the rising demand of land

Agricultural land use

• Terracing-farming on steps cut into hillsides, increases the area of arable land, thus maximisng land use
• Soil-less farming, hydroponics-less land is needed, but the supply of food is not affected
• Irrigation-helps to maximise existing land use, supply water to areas formerly not suitable for cultivation such as deserts or areas with seasonal or unreliable rainfall. also help to increase yields by lenghtening growign seasons
• methods of irrigation: traditional way divert water to the fields by simple canals and perennial canals which provide water all year round, built in conjuction with large dam projects. Modern farms have sprinklers driven by electric pumps to increase effiiency of irrigation

Conservation of land

Land as a nature reserve

• A nature reserve is an area of protected land for the benefit of its plants wildlife nad physical features
• destruction of land destroys the natural scenic beauty and disturb the habitats of the living organisms
• land is regarded as important natural heritage
• land conservation minimise this loss and damage so that more land can be made available for human uses

policy to facilitate land conservation

• in many cases, scarcity of land is worsen by improper use and mismanagement.
• e.g. land clearance destroys plants and the entire ecosystem
• this removes the food and habitat that other native species depend on.
• in some areas, government agencies may impose a conservation restriction on a landowner
• legal agreement is established to limit the uses of land for the purpose of land conservation
• in this way, valuable land can be reserved for proper developement

land reclaimation through landfill and draining swamps in Singapore

• Singapore has to overcome the restraints of limited land space.
• Large scale land reclaimation has been carried out in the south east, south west and north west of singapore, resulting in a straight coastline
• land reclaimation in Singapore started as early as 1820 along the Singapore River
• after 1960, htere were large reclaimation proects
• 1961, there was reclaimation of mangrove swamps in Jurong which spearheaded Singapore's industrialisation plans and other land reclaimation projects
• 1963, the land reclaimation project in Bedok provided land to build new homes for Singaporeans
• land area grew from 581.5 sq km in 1960 to 699 sq sm in 2004
• Urban redevelopement Authority URA projects a land shortage of 40 sq km when population hits 5.5 mllion
• more land is needed for housing and recreational activities, rapid economic growth, and developing infrastructure like roads, expressways, the MRT and LRT systems, port and airports.
• Singapore reclaims land from swamps and seas using landfill method
• dykes must be constructed in shallow parts of the sea to prevent sea water from entering the area to be reclaimed.
• the area is filled with sand, rock or soil.
• sand can be from seabed or imported from other countries, rocks and soil from hills nearby
• seven islands off south west of Singapore are merged by reclaimation to form jurong island
• created a big island for industrial use- EXPENSIVE! but it is expected to yield many benefits in future as Singapore developes as a petrochemical hub

Land Reclaimation in other countries

• Dubai-a resort called palm island has been built using hte landfill method
• tourism purpose

• water is extremely important, esp for land dependant on water for agricultural purposes
• water is VITAL for places with low precipitation as they rely on water for farming, domestic consumption and industries
• places like North Africa and the Middle East have a low annual precipitation and this results in the scarcity of water:(

2) Climate Change

• Disturbances to the hydrologic cycle have led to an increase in the number of prolonged droughts (reason for climate change-global warming& deforestation)

3) Deforestation

• trees slow down surface runoff during heavy rains.
• when trees are cut down, water flows into the river quickly, increasing the amount of sediment entering the river
• This may cause floods which leads to the contamination of fresh water
• Deforestation also results in less water infiltrating through the soil and groud thus less ground water

4)Poor farming practices

• Poor farming practices affect water supply
• e.g monoculture where 1 single type of crop is planted again and again. This reduces soil fertility. Farming on land with low fertility can cause serious soil leaching and severe soil erosion, nutrients are easily washed into the irrigatio canals and rivers
• e.g overgrazing where excessive herds of cattle are reared on inadequate pastureland
• this occurs esp on marginal land that is exposed to severe soil erosion, waterways will become blocked with sedimentation and this in turn leads to flooding
• water becomes contaminated, decreasing water supply
• livestock grazing near water sources, using large amounts of chemical fertilisers, pesticides and weedicides pollute the water source

Reasons for rising demand of water

1) Increase in population (also a reason for rising demand of land!)

• more people, more water needed for bathing, flushing toilets, washing and drinking

2)Increase in Agricultural Activities

• Increase in population, increase in food, increase in agriculture, increase in water needed for irrigation

3)Increase in Industrial and commercial activities

• Industrial activities need alot of water, rapid industrial developement=increase in demand for water
• Industrial activities account for 22% of water consumption!!!! just refining 1 litre of gasoline needs 9.5 litres of water!!!!!!

Chapter 14-Responses to rising demand for water

1)Increasing price of water (also a response to rising demand of land!!)

• water prices have direct influence on water use, increase in water price, less use of water!
• it is determined after discussion among government officials, water companies, environmental groups and interest groups of consumers

2)Increasing water supply

1. Managing catchment areas

• catchment areas/drainage basins is the area of land bounded by hills of mountain.
• surface runoff collects in a catchment area and water is carried by a river and it's tributaries to the sea (means that catchment areas are the sources of rivers
• however, certain human activities-deforestation, poor farming practices and water pollution have a negative impact on the water quality of streams, rivers, lakes and reservoirs
• proper management of of catchment areas can minimise the negaticeimpact on the catchment areas and protect the supply of fresh water, e.g restrictions of logging activities and carrying out reforestation programmes
• another way is to initiate large water projects that help increase water supply e.g man made lake Nasser and 3 Gorges Dam project

2.International Agreements

• Some rivers cut across political boundaries
• These can cause regional tensions and conflicts among nations-result in inefficient use of the water or decrease in water supply to affected countries
• It is difficult to share water as some countries occupy the up stream of the river and some the down stream.
• Disputes about allocation of water cause conflicts, decreases efficiency of water use and decreases water supply to many countries
• International agreements help to settle disputes over water resources
• regulate the amount of water that each state or province is allowed to withdraw from the river

3. Desalination

• It is a process that removes salts and other impurities from saltwater.
• practiced for over 50 years
• used in cities where demand of water is high.

4. Water Reclaimation

• It is the treatment of wastewater for reuse (NEWater!!!)
• used at first for irrigation, toilet flushing and industrial purposes only, also used in industrials
• due to improvements in technology, we can drink reclaimed water

3) Water conservation

• water conservation takes place in all sectors of the economy(domestic, industrial, commercial and agriculture)
• Public education is needed to inform poeple on why water conservation is important or how to reduce water wastage
• posters, flyers, booklets, flyers, programmes and events etc.

Water conservation at home

1. toilet

• check toilet tank for leakages
• install a low flush toilet that uses less water when flushing
• never use toilet as a trash bin to avoid unneccessary flushing

2. Shower

• Take short showers
• turn off water while soaping
• low flow showerhead that restricts flow of water
• turn off tap TIGHT

3. Bathroom

• when brushing teeth, turn off water until it is time to rinse
• when washing hands, turn off water and apply soap, then turn it on to rinse

4. Kitchen

• wash vegetables and fruits in a pan of water, then recycle the water by washing bowls or watering pot plants( good! the water contains nutrients, pesticides etc!!)
• run the dishwasher only when it's fully loaded with dirty dishes

5. Laundry

• Wash only at full load when using washing machine

6. Living room

• grow plants that do not need alot of water (err...)
• water plants with water recycled from washing rice, vegetables and fruits (that's better)

done:)

• Rain throughout the year but not all rain can be collected-half of the rain is collected in catchment areas, but the other half ends up in urbanised areas, enter drains and flow away into the sea!
• some seep into the ground as groundwater but cannot be used unless a well is dug, or it will flow into the sea
• much rain also evaporates

Demand

• Over half the water we consume is used at home
• Population increase, demand for water increases

Water in Singapore comes from 4 sources

1. Local water catchments : half of Singapore's total area is used as water catchments, will spread to 2/3 of the island when the Marina Reservoir and other reservoirs are completed
2. Imported water- Singapore imports water from Malaysia under 2 water agreements
3. NEWater (reclaimed water)- Through advanced technologies, we reclaim used water since 2002
4. Desalination : previously too expensive but recent technologies have turned it into an affordable option

Water from our local catchment areas

• 14 reservoirs to supply us with clean water, e.g MacRitchie reservoir
• currently, half of Singapore's total land area is used for water catchments, in 2009, area will go up to 2/3 of land area
• Reservoir Integration Scheme connects various reservoirs together through a system of pumps and pipelines so that excess water can be transferred from one reservoir to another
• Marina Barrage is Singapre's 15th reservoir, will boost singapore's water supply, control flooding and is suitable for recreational activities

Imported water

• Importing water form Malaysia supplement our water supply
• water is piped via the Causeway from Johor
• 2 water agreements in 1961 and 1962 have been signed, lasting until 2011 and 2061 respectively

NEWater (reclaimed water)

• All used water in Singapore is collected through a sewerage reticulation system network and treated to acceptable discharge standards at water reclaimation plants
• In the past, these water will flow to the sea
• Through technology, we have been able to reclaim large volumes of used water since 2002, have 4 NEWater factories-Bedok, Kranji, Seletar and Ulu Pandan
• mainly used for industrial and commercial purposes a small amount blended with reservoir water

Desalinated Water

• construction of Singapore's first desalination plant was in 2004, it began to operate in 2005
• can meet 10% of water needs every day.

Four National Taps strategy

• PUB, Singapore's water agency, manages singapore's water supply, it's mission is to ensure an efficient, adequate and sustainable supply of water
• They have come up with a comprehensive water conservation plan to urge consumers to use water efficiently
• e.g. pricing water to reflect its strategic importance and scarcity
• Educating the public to make efficient use of water
• Making it compulsory for commercial and industrial premises to install water saving devices
• encouraging industries to use alternative sources like newater
• imposing fines on water wastage and unathorised use of water